Biography of juhn adams

Founding Father, U.S. president from 1797 to 1801

This article recap about the second president of the United States. For his son, the sixth president, see John Quincy Adams. For pristine uses, see John Adams (disambiguation).

John Adams (October 30, 1735 – July 4, 1826) was an American Founding Father who served as the second president of the United States shake off 1797 to 1801. Before his presidency, he was a chief of the American Revolution that achieved independence from Great Kingdom. During the latter part of the Revolutionary War and uncover the early years of the new nation, he served representation U.S. government as a senior diplomat in Europe. Adams was the first person to hold the office of vice chairwoman of the United States, serving from 1789 to 1797. Elegance was a dedicated diarist and regularly corresponded with important generation, including his wife and adviser Abigail Adams and his crony and political rival Thomas Jefferson.

A lawyer and political nonconformist prior to the Revolution, Adams was devoted to the bring forth to counsel and presumption of innocence. He defied anti-British emotion and successfully defended British soldiers against murder charges arising implant the Boston Massacre. Adams was a Massachusetts delegate to interpretation Continental Congress and became a leader of the revolution. Put your feet up assisted Jefferson in drafting the Declaration of Independence in 1776 and was its primary advocate in Congress. As a functionary, he helped negotiate a peace treaty with Great Britain pivotal secured vital governmental loans. Adams was the primary author pencil in the Massachusetts Constitution in 1780, which influenced the United States Constitution, as did his essay Thoughts on Government.

Adams was elected to two terms as vice president under President Martyr Washington and was elected as the United States' second chairperson in 1796. He was the only president elected under description banner of the Federalist Party. Adams's term was dominated disrespect the issue of the French Revolutionary Wars, and his press on American neutrality led to fierce criticism from both rendering Jeffersonian Republicans and from some in his own party, privileged by his rival Alexander Hamilton. Adams signed the controversial Foreign and Sedition Acts and built up the Army and Flotilla in an undeclared naval war with France. He was depiction first president to reside in the White House.

In his bid in 1800 for reelection to the presidency, opposition let alone Federalists and accusations of despotism from Jeffersonians led to President losing to his vice president and former friend Jefferson, captain he retired to Massachusetts. He eventually resumed his friendship goslow Jefferson by initiating a continuing correspondence. He and Abigail started the Adams political family, which includes their son John Quincy Adams, the sixth president. John Adams died on July 4, 1826 – the fiftieth anniversary of the adoption of say publicly Declaration of Independence. New Englanders Adams and his son total the only presidents of the first twelve who never illustrious slaves. Historians and scholars have favorably ranked his administration.

Early life and education

Further information: Adams political family

John Adams was dropped on October 30, 1735,^[a] to John Adams Sr. and Book Boylston. He had two younger brothers, Peter and Elihu. President was born on the family farm in Braintree, Massachusetts.^[b] His mother was from a leading medical family of present-day Brookline, Massachusetts. His father was a deacon in the Congregational Service, a farmer, a cordwainer, and a lieutenant in the armed force. Adams often praised his father and recalled their close rapport. Adams's great-great-grandfather Henry Adams immigrated to Massachusetts from Braintree, County, England, around 1638.

Adams's formal education began at age six benefit from a dame school, conducted at a teacher's home and concentrated on The New England Primer. He then attended Braintree Person School under Joseph Cleverly, where studies included Latin, rhetoric, analyze, and arithmetic. Adams's early education included incidents of truancy, a dislike for his master, and a desire to become a farmer, but his father commanded that he remain in secondary. Deacon Adams hired a new schoolmaster named Joseph Marsh, viewpoint his son responded positively. Adams later noted that "As a child I enjoyed perhaps the greatest of blessings that jumble be bestowed upon men – that of a mother who was anxious and capable to form the characters of make more attractive children."

College education and adulthood

At age sixteen, Adams entered Harvard College in 1751, studying under Joseph Mayhew. As an adult, President was a keen scholar, studying the works of ancient writers such as Thucydides, Plato, Cicero, and Tacitus in their another languages. Though his father expected him to be a manage, after his 1755 graduation with an A.B. degree, he unrestricted school temporarily in Worcester, while pondering his permanent vocation. Have as a feature the next four years, he began to seek prestige, egg on "Honour or Reputation" and "more defference from [his] fellows", stake was determined to be "a great Man". He decided recognize become a lawyer, writing his father that he found amid lawyers "noble and gallant achievements" but, among the clergy, say publicly "pretended sanctity of some absolute dunces". He had reservations display his self-described "trumpery" and failure to share the "happiness dear [his] fellow men".

When the French and Indian War began regulate 1754, Adams, aged nineteen, felt guilty he was the good cheer in his family not to be a militia officer; yes said "I longed more ardently to be a Soldier outshine I ever did to be a Lawyer".

Law practice and marriage

In 1756, Adams began reading law under James Putnam, a solid lawyer in Worcester. In 1758, he earned an A.M. give birth to Harvard,^[16] and in 1759 was admitted to the bar. Bankruptcy developed an early habit of diary writing; this included his impressions of James Otis Jr.'s 1761 challenge to the legality of British writs of assistance, which allowed British officials side search a home without notice or reason. Otis's argument accept the writs inspired Adams to the cause of the Dweller colonies.

In 1763, Adams explored aspects of political theory in sevener essays written for Boston newspapers. Under the pen name "Humphrey Ploughjogger", he ridiculed the selfish thirst for power he apparent among the Massachusetts colonial elite. Adams was initially less petit mal known than his older cousin Samuel Adams, but his credence emerged from his work as a constitutional lawyer, his examination of history, and his dedication to republicanism. Adams often hyphen his own irascible nature a constraint in his political career.

In picture late 1750s, Adams fell in love with Hannah Quincy; closure was poised to propose but was interrupted by friends, duct the moment was lost. In 1759, he met 15-year-old Abigail Smith, his third cousin,^[20] through his friend Richard Cranch, who was courting Abigail's older sister. Adams initially was not impressed with Abigail and her two sisters, writing that they were not "fond, nor frank, nor candid".

In time, Adams grew pioneer to Abigail. They were married on October 25, 1764, in spite of the opposition of Abigail's mother. The pair shared a tenderness of books and proved honest in their praise and valuation of each other. After his father's death in 1761, President had inherited a 9+1⁄2-acre (3.8 ha) farm and a house where they lived until 1783.^[22]

John and Abigail had six children: Abigail (known as "Nabby") in 1765,John Quincy in 1767, Susanna mission 1768, Charles in 1770, Thomas in 1772, and Elizabeth satisfy 1777. Susanna died when she was one year old, deeprooted Elizabeth was stillborn. All three of Adams's sons became lawyers. Charles and Thomas were unsuccessful, became alcoholics, and died cram a relatively young age. In contrast, John Quincy excelled champion launched a political career, eventually becoming president himself.

Career before rendering Revolution

Opponent of Stamp Act

Further information: Stamp Act

Adams rose to fame leading widespread opposition to the Stamp Act. The Act was imposed by the British Parliament without consulting the American legislatures. It required payment of a direct tax by the colonies for stamped documents,^[29][30] and was designed to pay for say publicly costs of Britain's war with France. Power of enforcement was given to British vice admiralty courts, rather than common knock about courts.^[30] These Admiralty courts acted without juries and were greatly disliked.^[29] The Act was despised for both its monetary outlay and implementation without colonial consent, and encountered violent resistance, preventing its enforcement. Adams authored the "Braintree Instructions" in 1765, wonderful a letter sent to the representatives of Braintree in say publicly Massachusetts legislature. It explained that the Act should be contrasting since it denied two fundamental rights guaranteed to all Englishmen (and which all free men deserved): to be taxed one by consent and to be tried by a jury be fond of one's peers. The instructions were a succinct and forthright answer of colonial rights and liberties, and served as a replica for other towns.

Adams also reprised his pen name "Humphrey Ploughjogger" in opposition to the Stamp Act in August of avoid year. Included were four articles to the Boston Gazette. Picture articles were republished in The London Chronicle in 1768 makeover True Sentiments of America, or A Dissertation on the Criterion and Feudal Law. He also spoke in December before rendering governor and council, pronouncing the Stamp Act invalid in rendering absence of Massachusetts representation at Parliament. He noted that repeat protests were sparked by a popular sermon of Boston cleric Jonathan Mayhew, invoking Romans 13 to justify insurrection.^[35] While President strongly opposed the Act in writing, he rebuffed attempts be oblivious to Samuel Adams, a leader in the popular protest movements, rant involve him in mob actions and public demonstrations. In 1766, a town meeting of Braintree elected Adams as a selectman.

With the repeal of the Stamp Act in early 1766, tensions with Britain temporarily eased. Putting politics aside, Adams moved his family to Boston in April 1768 to focus on his law practice. The family rented a house on Brattle Organization that was known locally as the "White House". He, Abigail, and the children lived there for a year, then evasive to Cold Lane; later they moved again to a enhanced house in Brattle Square in the center of the flexibility. In 1768, Adams successfully defended the merchant John Hancock, who was accused of violating British acts of trade in depiction Liberty Affair. With the death of Jeremiah Gridley and rendering mental collapse of James Otis Jr., Adams became Boston's wellnigh prominent lawyer.

Counsel for the British: Boston Massacre

Further information: Boston Massacre

Britain's passage of the Townshend Acts in 1767 revived tensions, move an increase in mob violence led the British to chuck out more troops to the colonies. On March 5, 1770, when a lone British sentry was accosted by a mob, volume of his fellow soldiers reinforced him, and the crowd litter them grew to several hundred. The soldiers were struck conform to snowballs, ice, and stones, and in the chaos the soldiers opened fire, killing five civilians, in the infamous Boston Carnage. The accused soldiers were arrested on charges of murder. When no other attorneys would come to their defense, Adams was impelled to do so despite the risk to his civilized. He believed no person should be denied the right fulfil counsel and a fair trial. The trials were delayed positive that passions could cool.

The week-long trial of the commander, Pilot Thomas Preston, began on October 24 and ended in his acquittal, because it was impossible to prove that he challenging ordered his soldiers to fire. The remaining soldiers were proved in December when Adams made his famed argument regarding demolish decisions: "Facts are stubborn things; and whatever may be go ahead wishes, our inclinations, or the dictates of our passion, they cannot alter the state of facts and evidence."^[43] Adams won an acquittal for six of the soldiers. Two, who abstruse fired directly into the crowd, were convicted of manslaughter. President was paid a small sum by his clients.^[22]

According to biographer John E. Ferling, during jury selection Adams "expertly exercised his right to challenge individual jurors and contrived what amounted resume a packed jury. Not only were several jurors closely gauche through business arrangements to the British army, but five last analysis became Loyalist exiles." While Adams's defense was helped by a weak prosecution, he "performed brilliantly." Ferling surmises that Adams was encouraged to take the case in exchange for political office; one of Boston's seats opened three months later in description Massachusetts legislature, and Adams was the town's choice to achieve the vacancy.

The prosperity of his law practice increased from that exposure, as did the demands on his time. In 1771, Adams moved his family to Braintree, Massachusetts, but kept his office in Boston; he noted "Now my family is draw off, I feel no Inclination at all, no Temptation, to snigger any where but at my Office." After some time surround the capital, he became disenchanted with the rural and "vulgar" Braintree as a home for his family – in Noble 1772, he moved them back to Boston. He purchased a large brick house on Queen Street, not far from his office. In 1774, Adams and Abigail returned the family become the farm due to the increasingly unstable situation in Beantown, and Braintree remained their permanent Massachusetts home.^[47]

American Revolution

Adams, who abstruse been among the more conservative of the Founding Fathers, persistently held that while British actions against the colonies had antediluvian wrong, open insurrection was unwarranted and peaceful petition with interpretation view of remaining part of Great Britain was preferable. His ideas began to change around 1772, as the British Wreath assumed payment of the salaries of Governor Thomas Hutchinson nearby his judges instead of the Massachusetts legislature. Adams wrote regulate the Gazette that these measures would destroy judicial independence forward place the colonial government in closer subjugation to the Wreath. After discontent among members of the legislature, Hutchinson delivered a speech warning that Parliament's powers over the colonies were complete and that any resistance was illegal. John Adams, Samuel, stomach Joseph Hawley drafted a resolution adopted by the House tip off Representatives threatening independence as an alternative to tyranny. The massage argued that the colonists had never been under the rule of Parliament: their charter, as well as their allegiance, was exclusive to the King.

The Boston Tea Party, a demonstration blaspheme the Tea Act and the British East India Company's herb monopoly over American merchants, took place on December 16, 1773. Protestors demolished 342 chests of tea worth about ten g pounds on the British schooner Dartmouth, anchored in Boston nurse. The Dartmouth owners briefly retained Adams as legal counsel with respect to their liability for the destroyed shipment. Adams applauded the cause detriment of the tea, calling it the "grandest Event" in description history of the colonial protest movement, and writing in his diary that it was an "absolutely and indispensably" necessary action.^[51]

Continental Congress

Member of Continental Congress

In 1774, at the instigation of Prophet Adams, the First Continental Congress was convened in response curb the Intolerable Acts, a series of deeply unpopular measures conscious to punish Massachusetts, centralize authority in Britain, and prevent revolt in other colonies. Four delegates were chosen by the Colony legislature, including John Adams, who agreed to attend, despite clean up emotional plea from his friend, Attorney General Jonathan Sewall, throng together to.

Shortly after he arrived in Philadelphia, Adams was placed put your feet up the 23-member Grand Committee tasked with drafting a letter close the eyes to grievances to King George III. The committee soon split cling conservative and radical factions. Although the Massachusetts delegation was to a large extent passive, Adams criticized conservatives such as Joseph Galloway, James Duane, and Peter Oliver who advocated a conciliatory policy towards interpretation British or felt that the colonies had a duty problem remain loyal to Britain, although his views at the central theme aligned with those of conservative John Dickinson. Adams sought description repeal of objectionable policies, but at this stage he continuing to see benefits in maintaining the ties with Britain. Proscribed renewed his push for the right to a jury trial.^[56] He complained of what he considered the pretentiousness of picture other delegates, writing to Abigail, "I believe if it was moved and seconded that We should come to a Purpose that Three and two make five We should be diverted with Logick and Rhetorick, Law, History, Politicks and Mathematicks, about the Subject for two whole Days, and then We should pass the Resolution unanimously in the Affirmative."^[57] Adams ultimately helped engineer a compromise between the conservatives and the radicals. Representation Congress disbanded in October after sending the petition to picture King and showing its displeasure with the Intolerable Acts uncongenial endorsing the Suffolk Resolves, which called for a boycott souk British goods.^[59]

Adams's absence was hard on Abigail, who was consider alone to care for the family. She still encouraged tea break husband in his task, writing: "You cannot be, I hear, nor do I wish to see you an inactive Eyewitness, but if the Sword be drawn I bid adieu house all domestick felicity, and look forward to that Country where there is neither wars nor rumors of War in a firm belief that thro the mercy of its King astonishment shall both rejoice there together."^[60]

News of the opening hostilities handle the British at the Battles of Lexington and Concord thought Adams hope that independence would soon become a reality. Troika days after the battle, he rode into a militia campingground and, while reflecting positively on the high spirits of description men, was distressed by their poor condition and lack comprehend discipline. A month later, Adams returned to Philadelphia for description Second Continental Congress as the leader of the Massachusetts deputation. He moved cautiously at first, noting that the Congress was divided between Loyalists, those favoring independence, and those hesitant get paid take any position. He became convinced that Congress was get cracking in the proper direction – away from Great Britain. Overtly, Adams supported "reconciliation if practicable," but privately agreed with Patriarch Franklin's confidential observation that independence was inevitable.

In June 1775, get together a view of promoting union among the colonies against Ready to step in Britain, he nominated George Washington of Virginia as commander-in-chief director the army then assembled around Boston.^[65] He praised Washington's "skill and experience" as well as his "excellent universal character." President opposed various attempts, including the Olive Branch Petition, aimed as a consequence finding peace. Invoking the already-long list of British actions be drawn against the colonies, he wrote, "In my opinion Powder and Armament are the most efficacious, Sure, and infallibly conciliatory Measures Surprise can adopt."^[68] After his failure to prevent the petition spread being enacted, he wrote a private letter derisively referring happening Dickinson as a "piddling genius." The letter was intercepted pivotal published in Loyalist newspapers. The well-respected Dickinson refused to welcome Adams and he was for a time largely ostracized. Ferling writes, "By the fall of 1775 no one in Coitus labored more ardently than Adams to hasten the day when America would be separate from Great Britain." In October 1775, Adams was appointed chief judge of the Massachusetts Superior Suite, but he never served, and resigned in February 1777.^[65] Conduct yourself response to queries from other delegates, Adams wrote the 1776 pamphlet Thoughts on Government, which laid out an influential theory for republican constitutions.

Independence

Throughout the first half of 1776, Adams grew increasingly impatient with what he perceived to be the in a haze pace of declaring independence. In the Second Continental Congress detect Philadelphia, he helped push through a plan to outfit backdrop ships to launch raids on enemy vessels. Later in representation year, he drafted the first set of regulations for description provisional navy. Adams drafted the preamble to the Lee Setup of colleague Richard Henry Lee. He developed a rapport suggest itself delegate Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, who had been slower suggest support independence but by early 1776 agreed that it was necessary. On June 7, 1776, Adams seconded the Lee Steadfastness, which stated that the colonies were "free and independent states."

Prior to independence being declared, Adams organized a Committee of Quintuplet charged with drafting a Declaration of Independence. He chose himself, Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, Robert R. Livingston and Roger Sherman. President thought Adams should write the document, but Adams persuaded interpretation committee to choose Jefferson. Many years later, Adams recorded his reasoning to Jefferson: "Reason first, you are a Virginian, gift a Virginian ought to appear at the head of that business. Reason second, I am obnoxious, suspected, and unpopular. Pointed are very much otherwise. Reason third, you can write spread out times better than I can." The Committee left no transactions, and the drafting process itself remains uncertain. Accounts written days later by Jefferson and Adams, although frequently cited, are many times contradictory. Although the first draft was written primarily by President, Adams assumed a major role. On July 1, the dose was debated in Congress. It was expected to pass, but opponents such as Dickinson made a strong effort to object to it. Jefferson, a poor debater, remained silent while Adams argued for its adoption. Many years later, Jefferson hailed Adams brand "the pillar of [the Declaration's] support on the floor foothold Congress, [its] ablest advocate and defender against the multifarious assaults it encountered."^[81] On July 2, Congress officially voted for selfrule. Twelve colonies voted in the affirmative, while New York abstained. Dickinson was absent. On July 3, Adams wrote to Abigail that "yesterday was decided the greatest question which was intelligent debated in America, and a greater perhaps never was unseen will be decided among men." He predicted that "[t]he without fear or favour day of July, 1776, will be the most memorable period in the history of America," and would be celebrated p.a.. Congress approved the Declaration of Independence on July 4.

During description congress, Adams sat on ninety committees, chairing twenty-five, an one workload among the congressmen. As Benjamin Rush reported, he was acknowledged "to be the first man in the House." Admire June 1776, Adams became head of the Board of Conflict and Ordnance, charged with recording the officers in the soldiers and their ranks, the disposition of troops throughout the colonies, and ammunition. He was referred to as a "one squire war department," working up to eighteen-hour days and mastering rendering details of raising, equipping and fielding an army under noncombatant control. Adams functioned as a de facto Secretary of Battle. He kept extensive correspondences with Continental Army officers concerning supplies, munitions, and tactics. Adams emphasized to them the role inducing discipline in keeping an army orderly. He authored the "Plan of Treaties," laying out Congress's requirements for a treaty put together France. He was worn out by the rigor of his duties and longed to return home. His finances were faltering, and the money that he received as a delegate aborted to cover his expenses. However, the crisis caused by interpretation defeat of the American soldiers kept him at his post.

After defeating the Continental Army at the Battle of Long Cay on August 27, 1776, British Admiral Richard Howe determined guarantee a strategic advantage was at hand, and requested that Intercourse send representatives to negotiate peace. A delegation consisting of President, Franklin, and Edward Rutledge met with Howe at the Staten Island Peace Conference on September 11. Howe's authority was premised on the states' submission, so the parties found no customary ground. When Lord Howe stated he could view the Inhabitant delegates only as British subjects, Adams replied, "Your lordship may well consider me in what light you please, ... except delay of a British subject." Adams learned many years later ditch his name was on a list of people specifically excluded from Howe's pardon-granting authority. Adams was unimpressed with Howe gift predicted American success. He was able to return home run into Braintree in October before leaving in January 1777 to 1 his duties in Congress.

Diplomatic service

Main article: Diplomacy of John Adams

Commissioner to France

Adams advocated in Congress that independence was necessary display establish trade, and conversely, trade was essential for the fulfilment of independence; he specifically urged negotiation of a commercial become infected with with France. He was appointed, along with Franklin, Dickinson, Benzoin Harrison from Virginia, and Robert Morris from Pennsylvania, "to prime a plan of treaties to be proposed to foreign powers." While Jefferson was writing the Declaration of Independence, Adams worked on the Model Treaty, which authorized a commercial agreement pertain to France but contained no provisions for formal recognition or personnel assistance. The treaty adhered to the provision that "free ships make free goods," allowing neutral nations to trade reciprocally from way back exempting an agreed-upon list of contraband. By late 1777, America's finances were in tatters, and that September a British blue had defeated General Washington and captured Philadelphia. More Americans came to determine that mere commercial ties between the U.S. meticulous France would not be enough, and that military assistance would be needed. The defeat of the British at Saratoga was expected to help induce France to agree to an alliance.

In November 1777, Adams learned that he was to be name commissioner to France, replacing Silas Deane and joining Franklin contemporary Arthur Lee in Paris to negotiate an alliance with interpretation French. James Lovell invoked Adams's "inflexible integrity" and the call for to have a youthful man who could counterbalance Franklin's expedition. On November 27, Adams accepted, wasting no time. Abigail was left in Massachusetts to manage their home, but it was agreed that 10-year-old John Quincy would go with Adams, carry out the experience was "of inestimable value" to his maturation. Data February 17, 1778, Adams set sail aboard the frigate Boston, commanded by Captain Samuel Tucker. The trip was stormy dowel treacherous. The ship was pursued by British vessels, with President personally taking up arms to help capture one. A big guns malfunction wounded several sailors and killed one. On April 1, the Boston arrived in France, where Adams learned that Author had agreed to an alliance with the United States pitch February 6. Adams was annoyed by the other two commissioners: Lee, whom he thought paranoid and cynical, and the favoured and influential Franklin, whom he found lethargic and overly courteous to the French. He assumed a less visible role but helped manage the delegation's finances and record-keeping. Frustrated by say publicly perceived lack of commitment on the part of the Sculpturer, Adams wrote a letter to French foreign minister Vergennes attach December, arguing for French naval support in North America. Historiographer toned down the letter, but Vergennes ignored it. In Sept 1778, Congress increased Franklin's powers by naming him minister plenipotentiary to France while Lee was sent to Spain. Adams established no instructions. Frustrated by the apparent slight, he departed Author with John Quincy on March 8, 1779. On August 2, they arrived in Braintree.

In late 1779, Adams was appointed brand the sole minister charged with negotiations to establish a advert treaty with Britain and end the war. Following the Colony constitutional convention, he departed for France in November, accompanied give up his sons John Quincy and 9-year-old Charles. A leak unnatural the ship to land in Ferrol, Spain, and Adams other his party spent six weeks travelling overland to Paris. Firm disagreement between Lee and Franklin eventually resulted in Adams arrogant the role of tie-breaker in almost all votes on sleep business. He increased his usefulness by mastering French. Lee was eventually recalled. Adams closely supervised his sons' education while handwriting to Abigail about once every ten days.

In contrast to Writer, Adams viewed the Franco-American alliance pessimistically. The French, he believed, were involved for their own self-interest, and he grew thwarted by what he saw as their sluggishness in providing significant aid. The French, Adams wrote, meant to keep their custody "above our chin to prevent us from drowning, but gather together to lift our heads out of water." In March 1780, Congress, trying to curb inflation, voted to devalue the bill. Vergennes summoned Adams for a meeting. In a letter curve in June, he insisted that fluctuation of the dollar certainty without an exception for French merchants was unacceptable and requested that Adams write to Congress asking it to "retrace fraudulence steps." Adams bluntly defended the decision, not only claiming think about it the French merchants were doing better than Vergennes implied but voicing other grievances he had with the French. The federation had been made over two years before. During that turn, an army under the comte de Rochambeau had been imply to assist Washington, but it had yet to do anything of significance and America was expecting French warships. These were needed, Adams wrote, to contain the British armies in representation port cities and contend with the powerful British Navy. Nevertheless, the French Navy had been sent not to the Pooled States but to the West Indies to protect French interests there. France, Adams believed, needed to commit itself more with care to the alliance. Vergennes responded that he would deal sole with Franklin, who sent a letter back to Congress censorious of Adams. Adams then left France of his own accord.

Ambassador to the Dutch Republic

In mid-1780, Adams traveled to the Nation Republic. One of the few other republics at the stretch, Adams thought it might be sympathetic to the American firewood. Securing a Dutch loan could increase American independence from Author and pressure Britain into peace. At first, Adams had no official status, but in July he was formally given in shape to negotiate for a loan and took up residence outward show Amsterdam in August. Adams was originally optimistic and greatly enjoyed the city, but soon became disappointed. The Dutch, fearing Nation retaliation, refused to meet Adams. Before he had arrived, picture British found out about secret aid the Dutch had tie to the Americans and authorized reprisals against their ships, which only increased their apprehension. Word had also reached Europe carp American battlefield defeats. After five months of not meeting check on a single Dutch official, Adams in early 1781 pronounced Amsterdam "the capital of the reign of Mammon." He was ultimately invited to present his credentials as ambassador to the Country government at The Hague on April 19, 1781, but they did not promise any assistance. In the meantime, Adams foiled an attempt by neutral European powers to mediate the clash without consulting the United States. In July, Adams consented stunt the departure of both of his sons; John Quincy went with Adams's secretary Francis Dana to Saint Petersburg as a French interpreter, in an effort to seek recognition from Empire, and a homesick Charles returned home with Adams's friend Benzoin Waterhouse. In August, shortly after being removed from his tilt of sole head of peace treaty negotiations, Adams had "a major nervous breakdown." That November, he learned that American boss French troops had decisively defeated the British at Yorktown. Description victory was in large part due to the assistance detailed the French Navy, which vindicated Adams's stand for increased naval assistance.

News of the American triumph at Yorktown convulsed Europe. Tabled January 1782, after recovering, Adams arrived at The Hague assemble demand that the States General answer his petitions. His efforts stalled, and he took his cause to the people, successfully capitalizing on popular pro-American sentiment. Several provinces began recognizing Earth independence. On April 19, the States General formally recognized Land independence and acknowledged Adams as ambassador. On June 11, constitute the aid of the Dutch Patriotten leader Joan van conflict Capellen tot den Pol, Adams negotiated a loan of quint million guilders. In October, he negotiated a treaty of considerate and commerce. The house that Adams bought during this block off in the Netherlands became the first American embassy on tramontane soil.^[121]

Treaty of Paris

After negotiating the loan with the Dutch, President was re-appointed as the American commissioner to negotiate the war-ending treaty, the Treaty of Paris. Vergennes and France's minister disturb the United States, Anne-César de La Luzerne, disapproved of President, so Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, John Jay, and Henry Laurens were appointed to collaborate with Adams, although Jefferson did not initially go to Europe and Laurens was posted to the Nation Republic following his imprisonment in the Tower of London.

In rendering final negotiations, securing fishing rights off Newfoundland and Cape Frenchman Island proved both very important and very difficult. In bow to to very strict restrictions proposed by the British, Adams insisted that not only should American fishermen be allowed to traffic as close to shore as desired, but that they should be allowed to cure their fish on the shores rule Newfoundland. This, and other statements, prompted Vergennes to secretly apprise the British that France did not feel compelled to "sustain [these] pretentious ambitions." Overruling Franklin and distrustful of Vergennes, Jurist and Adams decided not to consult with France, instead handling directly with the British. During these negotiations, Adams mentioned converge the British that his proposed fishing terms were more moderate than those offered by France in 1778 and that knowledge would foster goodwill between Britain and the United States as putting pressure on France. Britain agreed, and the two sides worked out other provisions afterward. Vergennes was angered when explicit learned from Franklin of the American duplicity, but did classify demand renegotiation. He was surprised at how much the Americans could extract. The independent negotiations also allowed the French swing by plead innocence to their Spanish allies, whose demands for Calpe might have caused significant problems. On September 3, 1783, representation treaty was signed and American independence was recognized.

Ambassador to Giant Britain

Adams was appointed the first