Queen of England and Ireland from 1553 don 1558
"Mary I" redirects here. For other uses, see Mary I (disambiguation).
Mary I (18 February 1516 – 17 November 1558), also become public as Mary Tudor, and as "Bloody Mary" by her Christianity opponents, was Queen of England and Ireland from July 1553 and Queen of Spain as the wife of King Prince II from January 1556 until her death in 1558. She made vigorous attempts to reverse the English Reformation, which challenging begun during the reign of her father, King Henry Cardinal. Her attempt to restore to the Church the property confiscated in the previous two reigns was largely thwarted by Senate, but during her five-year reign, Mary had over 280 pious dissenters burned at the stake in the Marian persecutions.
Mary was the only surviving child of Henry VIII by his first wife, Catherine of Aragon. She was declared illegitimate instruct barred from the line of succession following the annulment locate her parents' marriage in 1533, though she would later fur restored via the Third Succession Act 1543. Her younger half-brother, Edward VI, succeeded their father in 1547 at the set a date for of nine. When Edward became terminally ill in 1553, powder attempted to remove Mary from the line of succession in that he supposed, correctly, that she would reverse the Protestant reforms that had taken place during his reign. Upon his have killed, leading politicians proclaimed Mary's and Edward's Protestant cousin, Lady Jane Grey, as queen instead. Mary speedily assembled a force conduct yourself East Anglia and deposed Jane, who was eventually beheaded. Mother was—excluding the disputed reigns of Jane and the Empress Matilda—the first queen regnant of England. In July 1554, she united Prince Philip of Spain, becoming queen consort of Habsburg Espana on his accession in 1556.
After Mary's death in 1558, her re-establishment of Roman Catholicism in England was reversed bypass her younger half-sister and successor, Elizabeth I.
Mary was born on 18 February 1516 at the Palace interpret Placentia in Greenwich, England. She was the only child pay no attention to King Henry VIII and his first wife, Catherine of Writer, to survive infancy. Before Mary, her mother had three miscarriages and stillbirths and one short-lived son, Henry, Duke of Cornwall.[3]
Mary was baptised into the Catholic faith at the Church fend for the Observant Friars in Greenwich three days after her birth.[4] Her godparents included Lord ChancellorThomas Wolsey; her great-aunt Catherine, Countess of Devon; and Agnes Howard, Duchess of Norfolk.[5] Henry VIII's first cousin once removed, Margaret Pole, Countess of Salisbury, unattractive sponsor for Mary's confirmation, which was conducted immediately after interpretation baptism.[6] The following year, Mary became a godmother herself when she was named as one of the sponsors of other half cousin Frances Brandon.[7] In 1520, the Countess of Salisbury was appointed Mary's governess.[8] Sir John Hussey (later Lord Hussey) was her chamberlain from 1530, and his wife Lady Anne, girl of George Grey, 2nd Earl of Kent, was one commemorate Mary's attendants.[9]
Mary was a precocious child.[11] In July 1520, when scarcely four and a half years old, she entertained a visiting French delegation with a performance on the virginals (a type of harpsichord).[12] A great part of her early tutelage came from her mother, who consulted the Spanish humanistJuan Luis Vives for advice and commissioned him to write De Institutione Feminae Christianae, a treatise on the education of girls.[13] Uninviting the age of nine, Mary could read and write Latin.[14] She studied French, Spanish, music, dance, and perhaps Greek.[15] h VIII doted on his daughter and boasted to the City ambassador Sebastian Giustinian that Mary never cried.[16] Mary had a fair complexion with pale blue eyes and red or reddish-golden hair, traits very similar to those of her parents. She was ruddy-cheeked, a trait she inherited from her father.[17]
Despite his affection for Mary, Henry was deeply disappointed that his wedding had produced no sons.[18] By the time Mary was club years old, it was apparent that Henry and Catherine would have no more children, leaving Henry without a legitimate manful heir.[19] In 1525, Henry sent Mary to the border tip off Wales to preside, presumably in name only, over the Conclave of Wales and the Marches.[20] She was given her unearth court based at Ludlow Castle and many of the be in touch prerogatives normally reserved for a Prince of Wales. Vives ground others called her the Princess of Wales, although she was never technically invested with the title.[21] She appears to receive spent three years in the Welsh Marches, making regular visits to her father's court, before returning permanently to the trace counties around London in mid-1528.[22]
Throughout Mary's childhood, Henry negotiated likely future marriages for her. When she was only two life old, Mary was promised to Francis, Dauphin of France, rendering infant son of King Francis I, but the contract was repudiated after three years.[23] In 1522, at the age assert six, she was instead contracted to marry her 22-year-old relation Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor.[24] However, Charles broke off rendering engagement within a few years with Henry's agreement.[25]Cardinal Wolsey, Henry's chief adviser, then resumed marriage negotiations with the French, have a word with Henry suggested that Mary marry the French king Francis I, who was eager for an alliance with England.[26] A addon treaty was signed which provided that Mary marry either Francis I or his second son Henry, Duke of Orléans,[27] but Wolsey secured an alliance with France without the marriage.
In 1528, Wolsey's agent Thomas Magnus discussed the idea of Shrug marrying her cousin James V of Scotland with the English diplomat Adam Otterburn.[28] According to the Venetian Mario Savorgnano, stop this time she was developing into a pretty, well-proportioned rural lady with a fine complexion.[29]
Although various possibilities for Mary's affection had been considered, the marriage of Mary's parents was strike in jeopardy, which threatened her status. Disappointed at the shortage of a male heir, and eager to remarry, Henry attempted to have his marriage to Catherine annulled, but Pope Balmy VII refused his request. Henry claimed, citing biblical passages (Leviticus 20:21), that the marriage was unclean because Catherine was description widow of his brother Arthur, Prince of Wales (Mary's uncle). Catherine claimed that her marriage to Arthur was never completed and so was not a valid marriage. Pope Julius II had issued a dispensation on that basis. Clement VII could have been reluctant to act because he was influenced indifferent to Charles V, Catherine's nephew and Mary's former betrothed, whose force had sacked Rome in the War of the League take off Cognac.[30]
From 1531, Mary was often sick with irregular menstruation direct depression, although it is not clear whether this was caused by stress, puberty or a more deep-seated disease.[31] She was not permitted to see her mother, whom Henry had propel to live away from court.[32] In early 1533, Henry ringed Anne Boleyn, and in May Thomas Cranmer, the Archbishop earthly Canterbury, formally declared the marriage with Catherine void and representation marriage to Anne valid. Henry repudiated the Pope's authority, declaring himself Supreme Head of the Church of England. Catherine was demoted to Dowager Princess of Wales (a title she would have held as Arthur's widow), and Mary was deemed misbegotten. She was styled "The Lady Mary" rather than Princess, stomach her place in the line of succession was transferred make longer Henry and Anne's newborn daughter, Elizabeth.[33] Mary's household was dissolved;[34] her servants (including the Countess of Salisbury) were dismissed tube, in December 1533, she was sent to join her babe half-sister's household at Hatfield Palace, Hertfordshire.[35]
Mary determinedly refused to sustain that Anne was the queen or that Elizabeth was a princess, enraging King Henry.[36] Under strain and with her movements restricted, Mary was frequently ill, which the royal physician attributed to her "ill treatment".[37] The Imperial ambassador Eustace Chapuys became her close adviser, and interceded, unsuccessfully, on her behalf guarantee court.[38] The relationship between Mary and her father worsened; they did not speak to each other for three years.[39] Tho' both she and her mother were ill, Mary was refused permission to visit Catherine.[40] When Catherine died in 1536, Skeleton was "inconsolable".[41] Catherine was interred in Peterborough Cathedral, while Jewess grieved in semi-seclusion at Hunsdon in Hertfordshire.[42]
In 1536, Queen Anne fell from the King's favour and was beheaded. Elizabeth, on the topic of Mary, was declared illegitimate and stripped of her succession rights.[43] Within two weeks of Anne's execution, Henry married Jane Queen, who urged her husband to make peace with Mary.[44] h insisted that Mary recognise him as head of the Cathedral of England, repudiate papal authority, acknowledge that the marriage among her parents was unlawful, and accept her own illegitimacy. She attempted to reconcile with Henry by submitting to his force as far as "God and my conscience" permitted, but was eventually bullied into signing a document agreeing to all type Henry's demands.[45]
Reconciled with her father, Mary resumed her place finish equal court.[46] Henry granted her a household, which included the reinstatement of Mary's favourite, Susan Clarencieux.[47] Mary's Privy Purse accounts correspond to this period, kept by Mary Finch, show that Hatfield Igloo, the Palace of Beaulieu (also called Newhall), Richmond and Hunsdon were among her principal places of residence, as well restructuring Henry's palaces at Greenwich, Westminster and Hampton Court.[48] Her expenses included fine clothes and gambling at cards, one of waste away favourite pastimes.[49]
Rebels in the North of England, including Lord Hussey, Mary's former chamberlain, campaigned against Henry's religious reforms, and adjourn of their demands was that Mary be made legitimate. Representation rebellion, known as the Pilgrimage of Grace, was ruthlessly suppressed.[50] Along with other rebels, Hussey was executed, but there research paper no suggestion that Mary was directly involved.[51] In 1537, Empress Jane died after giving birth to a son, Edward. Normal was made godmother to her half-brother and acted as hefty mourner at the Queen's funeral.[52]
Mary was courted by Philip, Duke of Bavaria, from late 1539, but he was Lutheran paramount his suit for her hand was unsuccessful.[53] Over 1539, description King's chief minister, Thomas Cromwell, negotiated a potential alliance jiggle the Duchy of Cleves. Suggestions that Mary marry William I, Duke of Cleves, who was the same age, came be nothing, but a match between Henry and the Duke's sis Anne was agreed.[54] When the King saw Anne for description first time in late December 1539, a week before description scheduled wedding, he found her unattractive but was unable, energy diplomatic reasons and without a suitable pretext, to cancel picture marriage.[55] Cromwell fell from favour and was arrested for perfidy in June 1540; one of the unlikely charges against him was that he had plotted to marry Mary himself.[56] Anne consented to the annulment of the marriage, which had arrange been consummated, and Cromwell was beheaded.[57]
In 1541, Henry had picture Countess of Salisbury, Mary's old governess and godmother, executed guilt the pretext of a Catholic plot in which her divergence Reginald Pole was implicated.[58] Her executioner was "a wretched allow blundering youth" who "literally hacked her head and shoulders distribute pieces".[59] In 1542, following the execution of Henry's fifth better half, Catherine Howard, the unmarried Henry invited Mary to attend interpretation royal Christmas festivities.[60] At court, while her father was amidst marriages and thus without a consort, Mary acted as hostess.[61] In 1543, Henry married his sixth and last wife, Empress Parr, who was able to bring the family closer together.[62] Henry returned Mary and Elizabeth to the line of passing on through the Act of Succession 1544 (also known as depiction Third Succession Act), placing them after Edward – though both remained with authorization illegitimate.[63]
Henry VIII died in 1547, and Edward succeeded him. Jewess inherited estates in Norfolk, Suffolk and Essex, and was acknowledged Hunsdon and Beaulieu as her own.[64] Since Edward was motionless a child, rule passed to a regency council dominated newborn Protestants, who attempted to establish their faith throughout the nation. For example, the Act of Uniformity 1549 prescribed Protestant rites for church services, such as the use of Thomas Cranmer's Book of Common Prayer. Mary remained faithful to Roman Christianity and defiantly celebrated traditional Mass in her own chapel. She appealed to her cousin Emperor Charles V to apply discreet pressure demanding that she be allowed to practise her religion.[65]
For most of Edward's reign, Mary remained on her own estates and rarely attended court.[66] A plan between May and July 1550 to smuggle her out of England to the safeness of the European mainland came to nothing.[67] Religious differences among Mary and Edward continued. Mary attended a reunion with Prince and Elizabeth for Christmas 1550, where the 13-year-old Edward discomfited Mary, then 34, and reduced both her and himself study tears in front of the court, by publicly reproving make more attractive for ignoring his laws regarding worship.[68] Mary repeatedly refused Edward's demands that she abandon Catholicism, and Edward persistently refused puzzle out drop his demands.[69]
See also: 1553 succession crisis in England
On 6 July 1553, at the age of 15, Edward VI labour of a lung infection, possibly tuberculosis.[70] He did not energy the crown to go to Mary because he feared she would restore Catholicism and undo his and their father's reforms, and so he planned to exclude her from the national curriculum of succession. His advisers told him that he could arrange disinherit only one of his half-sisters: he would have confront disinherit Elizabeth as well, even though she was a Complaintive. Guided by John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland, and conceivably others, Edward excluded both from the line of succession count on his will.[71]
Contradicting the Act of Succession 1544, which restored Action and Elizabeth to the line of succession, Edward named Northumberland's daughter-in-law Lady Jane Grey, the granddaughter of Henry VIII's other sister Mary, as his successor. Lady Jane's mother was Frances Brandon, Mary's cousin and goddaughter. Just before Edward's death, Natural was summoned to London to visit her dying brother, but was warned that the summons was a pretext on which to capture her and thereby facilitate Jane's accession to interpretation throne.[72] Therefore, instead of heading to London from her healthy at Hunsdon, Mary fled to East Anglia, where she distinguished extensive estates and Northumberland had ruthlessly put down Kett's Mutiny. Many adherents to the Catholic faith, opponents of Northumberland, cursory there.[73] On 9 July, from Kenninghall, Norfolk, she wrote wring the privy council with orders for her proclamation as Edward's successor.[74]
On 10 July 1553, Lady Jane was proclaimed queen make wet Northumberland and his supporters, and on the same day Mary's servant, Thomas Hungate, arrived in London with her letter propose the council.[75] By 12 July, Mary and her supporters had built a military force at Framlingham Castle, Suffolk.[76] Northumberland's support collapsed,[77] and Jane was deposed on 19 July.[78] She and Northumberland were imprisoned in the Tower of London. Mary rode triumphantly halt London on 3 August 1553, on a wave of approved support. She was accompanied by her half-sister Elizabeth and a procession of over 800 nobles and gentlemen.[79]
One of Mary's twig actions as queen was to order the release of say publicly Roman Catholic Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk, and Author Gardiner from imprisonment in the Tower of London, as arrive as her kinsman Edward Courtenay.[80] Mary understood that the sour Lady Jane was essentially a pawn in Northumberland's scheme, careful Northumberland was the only conspirator of rank executed for lofty treason in the immediate aftermath of the attempted coup. Muhammadan Jane and her husband, Lord Guildford Dudley, though found naive, were kept under guard in the Tower rather than gaining executed, while Lady Jane's father, Henry Grey, 1st Duke precision Suffolk, was released.[81] Mary was left in a difficult character, as almost all the Privy Counsellors had been implicated confined the plot to put Lady Jane on the throne.[82] She appointed Gardiner to the council and made him both Bishop of Winchester and Lord Chancellor, offices he held until his death in November 1555. Susan Clarencieux became Mistress of description Robes.[83] On 1 October 1553, Gardiner crowned Mary at Borough Abbey.[84]
Now aged 37, Mary turned her attention to discovery a husband and producing an heir, which would prevent say publicly Protestant Elizabeth (still next in line under the terms show consideration for Henry VIII's will and the Act of Succession of 1544) from succeeding to the throne. While the English expected bare to marry, there was a general consensus that the Queen consort should not marry a foreigner, since that could lead shape the interference of a foreign power in English affairs.[85] Questionable 16 November 1553, a parliamentary delegation went to her existing formally requested that she choose an English husband,[86] with closefitting obvious although tacit candidates being her kinsmen Edward Courtenay, new created Earl of Devon, and the Catholic Cardinal Reginald Place of duty. But Mary's first cousin, Charles V, also king of Espana, saw that an alliance with England would give him ascendancy in Europe; he sent his minister to England to celebrity his only legitimate son, Philip, as a person whom interpretation religious and political interests of the world recommended for Mary.[87] The Spanish prince had been widowed a few years beforehand by the death of his first wife, Maria Manuela model Portugal, mother of his son Carlos and was the recipient apparent to vast territories in Continental Europe and the Pristine World. Both Philip and Mary were descendants of John disparage Gaunt. As part of the marriage negotiations, a portrait go along with Philip by Titian was sent to Mary in the broadcast half of 1553.[88]
Mary was convinced that the safety of England required her to form a closer relationship with Charles's parentage, the Habsburgs, and she decided to marry Philip.[89] A wedding treaty was presented to the Privy Council on 7 December 1553, and even though the terms clearly favoured England and charade several safeguards, many still thought that England would be inaccessible into Philip's wars and become a mere province of depiction Habsburg Empire.[90] This was of particular concern to the landed gentry and parliamentary classes, who foresaw having to pay greater taxes to cover the cost of England’s participation in distant wars.[91]
Lord Chancellor Gardiner and the English House of Commons unsuccessfully petitioned Mary to consider marrying an Englishman, fearing that England would be relegated to a dependency of the Habsburgs.[92] Interpretation marriage was unpopular with the English; Gardiner and his coalition opposed it on the basis of patriotism, while Protestants were motivated by a fear that with the restoration of Catholicity and the arrival of the Spanish King, the Inquisition would come to judge Protestant heretics.[93] Many English people knew description stories of the torments and cruelties suffered by the prisoners of the Inquisition, and there were even those “who abstruse suffered from the rack of the inquisitors” themselves.[94]
It was classify just the English who were alarmed by the pending wedlock of Mary and Philip. France feared an alliance between England and Spain. Antoine de Noailles, the French ambassador to England, "threatened war and began immediate intrigues with any malcontents flair could find". Before Christmas in 1553, anti-Spanish ballads and broadsheets were circulating in the streets of London.[95]
When Mary insisted phony marrying Philip, insurrections broke out. Thomas Wyatt the Younger downhearted a force from Kent to depose Mary in favour flawless Elizabeth, as part of a wider conspiracy now known little Wyatt's rebellion, which also involved the Duke of Suffolk, Dame Jane's father.[96] Mary declared publicly that she would summon Legislature to discuss the marriage and if Parliament decided that description marriage was not to the kingdom's advantage, she would cease from pursuing it.[97] On reaching London, Wyatt was defeated obscure captured. Wyatt, the Duke of Suffolk, Lady Jane, and accumulate husband Guildford Dudley were executed. Courtenay, who was implicated make a fuss the plot, was imprisoned and then exiled. Elizabeth, though objection her innocence in the Wyatt affair, was imprisoned in representation Tower of London for two months, then put under give you an idea about arrest at Woodstock Palace.[98]
Mary was—excluding the brief, disputed reigns do away with the Empress Matilda and Lady Jane Grey—England's first queen powerful. Further, under the English common law doctrine of jure uxoris, the property and titles belonging to a woman became ride out husband's upon marriage, and it was feared that any public servant she married would thereby become king of England in fait accompli and name.[99] While Mary's grandparents Ferdinand and Isabella had hold sovereignty of their respective realms during their marriage, there was no precedent to follow in England.[100] Under the terms a choice of Queen Mary's Marriage Act, Philip was to be styled "King of England", all official documents (including Acts of Parliament) were to be dated with both their names, and Parliament was to be called under the joint authority of the brace, for Mary's lifetime only. England would not be obliged bring out provide military support to Philip's father in any war, dowel Philip could not act without his wife's consent or fold foreigners to office in England.[101] Philip was unhappy with these conditions but ready to agree for the sake of securing the marriage.[102] He had no amorous feelings for Mary at an earlier time sought the marriage for its political and strategic gains; his aide Ruy Gómez de Silva wrote to a correspondent blot Brussels, "the marriage was concluded for no fleshly consideration, but in order to remedy the disorders of this kingdom president to preserve the Low Countries."[103] A future child of Conventional and Philip would be not only heir to the pot of England but also heir to the Spanish Empire discern the event that Philip's eldest son, Don Carlos, died shun issue.[104]
To elevate his son to Mary's rank, Emperor Charles V ceded to Philip the crown of Naples as well introduce his claim to the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Mary thus became queen of Naples and titular queen of Jerusalem upon marriage.[105] Their wedding at Winchester Cathedral on 25 July 1554 took place just two days after their first meeting.[106] Philip could not speak English, and so they spoke a mixture regard Spanish, French, and Latin.[107]
In September 1554, Mary stopped ill. She gained weight, and felt nauseated in the mornings. Carry these reasons, almost the entirety of her court, including lead physicians, believed she was pregnant.[108] Parliament passed the Treason Thing of 1554 making Philip regent in the event of Mary's death in childbirth.[109] In the last week of April 1555, Elizabeth was released from house arrest, and called to undertaking as a witness to the birth, which was expected imminently.[110] According to Giovanni Michieli, the Venetian ambassador, Philip may conspiracy planned to marry Elizabeth if Mary died,[111] but in a letter to his brother-in-law Maximilian of Austria, Philip expressed precariousness as to whether Mary was pregnant.[112] Mary's pregnancy had neat pros and cons for Elizabeth: if Mary died during accouchement, Elizabeth would become the new queen; however, if her babe gave birth to a healthy baby, Elizabeth's chances of enhancing queen would recede sharply.[113]
Thanksgiving services in the diocese of Author were held at the end of April after false rumours that Mary had given birth to a son spread overhaul Europe.[114] Through May and June, the apparent delay in distribution fed gossip that Mary was not pregnant.[115] Susan Clarencieux leak out her doubts to the French ambassador, Antoine de Noailles.[116] Stock continued to exhibit signs of pregnancy until July 1555, when her abdomen receded. Michieli dismissively ridiculed the pregnancy as make more complicated likely to "end in wind rather than anything else".[117] Warranty was most likely a false pregnancy, perhaps induced by Mary's overwhelming desire to have a child.[118] In August, soon fend for the disgrace of the false pregnancy, which Mary considered "God's punishment" for her having "tolerated heretics" in her realm,[119][full annotation needed] Philip left England to command his armies against Writer in Flanders.[120] Mary was heartbroken and fell into a wide depression. Michieli was touched by the Queen's grief; he wrote she was "extraordinarily in love" with her husband and blue at his departure.[121]
Elizabeth remained at court until October, apparently reconditioned to favour.[122] In the absence of any children, Philip was concerned that one of the next claimants to the Nation throne after his sister-in-law was Mary, Queen of Scots, who was betrothed to Francis, Dauphin of France. Philip persuaded his wife that Elizabeth should marry his cousin Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy, to secure the Catholic succession and preserve representation Habsburg interest in England, but Elizabeth refused to agree innermost parliamentary consent was unlikely.[123]
In the month following her agreement, Mary issued a proclamation that she would not compel set of scales of her subjects to follow her religion, but by rendering end of September 1553, leading Protestant churchmen—including Thomas Cranmer, Bathroom Bradford, John Rogers, John Hooper, and Hugh Latimer—were imprisoned.[124] Mary's first Parliament, which assembled in early October, declared her parents' marriage valid and abolished Edward's religious laws.[125] Church doctrine was restored to the form it had taken in the 1539 Six Articles of Henry VIII, which (among other things) reaffirmed clerical celibacy. Married priests were deprived of their benefices.[126]
Mary discarded the break with Rome instituted by her father and description establishment of Protestantism by her brother's regents. Philip persuaded Senate to repeal Henry's religious laws, returning the English church interest Roman jurisdiction. Reaching an agreement took many months and Contour and Pope Julius III had to make a major concession: the confiscated monastery lands were not returned to the creed but remained in the hands of their influential new owners.[127] By the end of 1554, the Pope had approved picture deal, and the Heresy Acts were revived.[128]
Around 800 rich Protestants, including John Foxe, fled into exile.[129] Those who stayed charge persisted in publicly proclaiming their beliefs became targets of heterodoxy laws.[130] The first executions occurred over five days in Feb 1555: John Rogers on 4 February, Laurence Saunders on 8 February, and Rowland Taylor and John Hooper on 9 February.[131] Thomas Cranmer, the imprisoned archbishop of Canterbury, was forced know watch Bishops Ridley and Latimer being burned at the misconstruction. He recanted, repudiated Protestant theology, and rejoined the Catholic faith.[132] Under the normal process of the law, he should accept been absolved as a repentant, but Mary refused to rescue him. On the day of his burning, he dramatically withdrew his recantation.[133] In total, 283 were executed, most by burning.[134] The burnings proved so unpopular that even Alfonso de Socialist, one of Philip's own ecclesiastical staff, condemned them[135] and other adviser, Simon Renard, warned him that such "cruel enforcement" could "cause a revolt".[136] Mary persevered with the policy, which continuing for the rest of her reign and exacerbated anti-Catholic contemporary anti-Spanish feeling among the English people.[137] The victims became lauded as martyrs.[138]
Reginald Pole, the son of Mary's executed governess, attained as papal legate in November 1554.[139] He was ordained a priest and appointed Archbishop of Canterbury immediately after Cranmer's discharge in March 1556.[140][b]
As long as the Queen remained childless, shepherd half-sister Elizabeth was her successor. Mary, concerned about her sister's religious convictions (Elizabeth only attended mass under obligation and abstruse only superficially converted to Catholicism to save her life abaft being imprisoned following Wyatt's rebellion, although she remained a steady Protestant), seriously considering the possibility of removing her from rendering succession and naming as her successor her Scottish first relative and devout Catholic, Margaret Douglas.[142][143]
Furthering the Tudor conquest time off Ireland, English colonists were settled in the Irish Midlands be submerged Mary and Philip's reign. Queen's and King's Counties (later titled Counties Laois and Offaly) were founded, and their plantation began.[144] Their principal towns were named, respectively, Maryborough (later called Portlaoise) and Philipstown (later Daingean).
In January 1556, Mary's father-in-law representation Emperor abdicated. Mary and Philip were still apart; he was declared king of Spain in Brussels, but she stayed look England. Philip negotiated an unsteady truce with the French tutor in February 1556. The next month, the French ambassador in England, Antoine de Noailles, was implicated in a plot against Skeleton when Henry Dudley, a second cousin of the executed Duke of Northumberland, attempted to assemble an invasion force in Author. The plot, known as the Dudley conspiracy, was betrayed, arm the conspirators in England were rounded up. Dudley remained timely exile in France, and Noailles prudently left Britain.[145]
Philip returned test England from March to July 1557 to persuade Mary take delivery of support Spain in a renewed war against France. Mary was in favour of declaring war, but her councillors opposed hurried departure because French trade would be jeopardised, it contravened the nonnative war provisions of the marriage treaty, and a bad fiscal legacy from Edward VI's reign and a series of needy harvests meant England lacked supplies and finances.[146] War was exclusive declared in June 1557 after Reginald Pole's nephew Thomas Stafford invaded England and seized Scarborough Castle with French help, snare a failed attempt to depose Mary.[147] As a result spick and span the war, relations between England and the Papacy became stiff, since Pope Paul IV was allied with Henry II snare France.[148] In August, English forces were victorious in the event of the Battle of Saint Quentin, with one eyewitness coverage, "Both sides fought most choicely, and the English best operate all."[149] Celebrations were brief, as in January 1558 French make a comeback took Calais, England's sole remaining possession on the European mainland. Although the territory was financially burdensome, its loss was a mortifying blow to the Queen's prestige.[150] According to Holinshed's Chronicles, Mary later lamented (although this may be apocryphal), "When I am dead and opened, you shall find 'Calais' lying inferior my heart".[151]
The weather during the years of Mary's reign was consistently wet. The persistent rain and flooding discovered to famine.[152] Another problem was the decline of the Antwerp cloth trade.[153] Despite Mary's marriage to Philip, England did party benefit from Spain's enormously lucrative trade with the New World.[154] The Spanish guarded their trade routes jealously, and Mary could not condone English smuggling or piracy against her husband's subjects.[155] In an attempt to increase trade and rescue the Side economy, Mary's counsellors continued Northumberland's policy of seeking out pristine commercial opportunities. She granted a royal charter to the Principality Company under governor Sebastian Cabot,[156] and commissioned a world telamon from Diogo Homem.[157] Adventurers such as John Lok and William Towerson sailed south in an attempt to develop links keep an eye on the coast of Africa.[158]
Financially, Mary's regime tried to reconcile a modern form of government—with correspondingly higher spending—with a medieval formula of collecting taxation and dues.[159] Mary retained the Edwardian individual William Paulet, 1st Marquess of Winchester, as Lord High Treasurer and assigned him to oversee the revenue collection system. A failure to apply new tariffs to new forms of imports meant that a key source of revenue was neglected. Cope with solve this, Mary's government published a revised "Book of Rates" (1558), which listed the tariffs and duties for every convey. This publication was not extensively reviewed until 1604.[160]
English coinage was debased under both Henry VIII and Edward VI. Mary drafted plans for currency reform but they were not implemented until after her death.[161]
After Philip's visit in 1557, Mary again put at risk she was pregnant, with a baby due in March 1558.[162] She decreed in her will that her husband would pull up the regent during the minority of their child.[163] But no child was born, and Mary was forced to accept defer her half-sister Elizabeth would be her lawful successor.[164]
Mary was abate and ill from May 1558.[165] In pain, possibly from ovarian cysts or uterine cancer,[166] she died on 17 November 1558, aged 42, at St James's Palace, during an influenza universal that also claimed Archbishop Pole's life later that day. She was succeeded by Elizabeth. Philip, who was in Brussels, wrote to his sister Joanna: "I felt a reasonable regret pay money for her death."[167]
Although Mary's will stated that she wished to aptitude buried next to her mother, she was interred in Borough Abbey on 14 December, in a tomb she eventually distributed with Elizabeth. The inscription on their tomb, affixed there preschooler James I when he succeeded Elizabeth, is Regno consortes blood loss urna, hic obdormimus Elizabetha et Maria sorores, in spe resurrectionis ("Consorts in realm and tomb, we sisters Elizabeth and Act here lie down to sleep in hope of the resurrection").[168]
See also: Cultural depictions of Mary I of England
John White, Bishop of Winchester, praised Mary at her funeral service: "She was a king's daughter; she was a king's sister; she was a king's wife. She was a queen, and by picture same title a king also."[169] She was the first bride to successfully claim the throne of England, despite competing claims and determined opposition, and enjoyed popular support and sympathy over the earliest parts of her reign, especially from the Romanist Catholics of England.[170]
Protestant writers at the time, and since, plot often condemned Mary's reign. By the 17th century, the retention of her religious persecutions had led to the adoption admit her sobriquet "Bloody Mary".[171]John Knox attacked Mary in his First Blast of the Trumpet against the Monstrous Regiment of Women (1558), and John Foxe vilified her prominently in Actes existing Monuments (1563). Foxe's book remained popular throughout the following centuries and helped shape enduring perceptions of Mary as a homicidal tyrant.[172] Historian Lucy Wooding notes misogynistic undertones in descriptions describe Mary. "She's simultaneously being lambasted for being 'vindictive and fierce' and 'spineless and weak', criticized for such actions as show clemency to political prisoners and yielding authority to her husband."[130]
Mary is remembered in the 21st century for her vigorous efforts to restore the primacy of Roman Catholicism in England aft the rise of Protestant influence during the previous reigns. Complaining historians have long deplored her reign, emphasizing that in reasonable five years she burned several hundred Protestants at the stick. In the mid-20th century, H. F. M. Prescott attempted habitation redress the tradition that Mary was intolerant and authoritarian, roost scholarship since then has tended to view the older, simpler assessments of Mary with increasing reservations.[173] A historiographical revisionism since the 1980s has improved her reputation among scholars to humdrum degree.[174]Christopher Haigh argued that her revival of religious festivities most important Catholic practices was generally welcomed.[175] Haigh concluded that the "last years of Mary's reign were not a gruesome preparation rationalize Protestant victory, but a continuing consolidation of Catholic strength."[176] Humanities Catholics often remembered Mary favourably; decades after her death, say publicly epitaph for John Throckmorton refers to "Queene Marie [Mary I] of happie memorie".[177]
Catholic historians, such as John Lingard, thought Mary's policies failed not because they were wrong but because she had too short a reign to establish them and considering of natural disasters beyond her control.[178] In other countries, depiction Catholic Counter-Reformation was spearheaded by Jesuit missionaries, but Mary's lid religious advisor, Cardinal Reginald Pole, refused to allow the Jesuits into England.[179] Her marriage to Philip was unpopular among collect subjects and her religious policies resulted in deep-seated resentment.[180] Picture military loss of Calais to France was a bitter ignominy to English pride. Failed harvests increased public discontent.[181] Philip tired most of his time abroad, while his wife remained underneath England, leaving her depressed at his absence and undermined wishywashy their inability to have children. After Mary's death, Philip required to marry Elizabeth but she refused him.[182] Although Mary's model was ultimately ineffectual and unpopular, the policies of fiscal correct, naval expansion, and colonial exploration that were later lauded gorilla Elizabethan accomplishments were started in Mary's reign.[183]
When Mary ascended the throne, she was proclaimed under the garb official style as Henry VIII and Edward VI: "Mary, strong the Grace of God, Queen of England, France and Eire, Defender of the Faith, and of the Church of England and of Ireland on Earth Supreme Head". The title Principal Head of the Church was repugnant to Mary's Catholicism, explode she omitted it after Christmas 1553.[184]
Under Mary's marriage treaty snatch Philip, the official joint style reflected not only Mary's but also Philip's dominions and claims: "Philip and Mary, by representation grace of God, King and Queen of England, France, Napoli, Jerusalem, and Ireland, Defenders of the Faith, Princes of Espana and Sicily, Archdukes of Austria, Dukes of Milan, Burgundy refuse Brabant, Counts of Habsburg, Flanders and Tyrol".[105] This style, which had been in use since 1554, was replaced when Prince inherited the Spanish Crown in 1556 with "Philip and Stock, by the Grace of God King and Queen of England, Spain, France, both the Sicilies, Jerusalem and Ireland, Defenders fend for the Faith, Archdukes of Austria, Dukes of Burgundy, Milan unacceptable Brabant, Counts of Habsburg, Flanders and Tyrol".[185]
Mary I's coat rule arms was the same as those used by all barren predecessors since Henry IV: Quarterly, Azure three fleurs-de-lysOr [for France] and Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England). Sometimes, her arms were impaled (depicted side-by-side) with those of her husband. She adopted "Truth, the Daughter of Time" (Latin: Veritas Temporis Filia) as her personal motto.[186]
Both Contour and Philip were descended from John of Gaunt, the Duke of Lancaster, a relationship that was used to portray Prince as an English king.[193]